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• Narendra Modi - Prime Minister of India - Born: 1950 Vadnagar, India - Children: 0

  

  • Annual: INR 1,920,000.00
  • Monthly: INR 160,000.00
  • Weekly: INR 38,400.00
  • Daily: INR 7,680.00
• Pranab Mukherjee - President of India - Born: 1935 India - Married - Children: 3

  

  • Annual: INR 1,800,000.00
  • Monthly: INR 150,000.00
  • Weekly: INR 36,000.00
  • Daily: INR 7,200.00

The 10 Richest Nations In The World

The 2008 global financial crisis slowed overall global economic growth for a number of years, however, some countries never felt the impact as hard. Instead, their GDP levels stabilized and per capita income increased. These top 10 richest countries have done well in the past decade and their fortunes improve with each passing year.

#10. Austria

Maa Gange

Bhagirathi is the source stream of Ganga. It emanates from Gangotri Glacier at Gaumukh at an elevation of 3, 892 m (12,770 feet). Many small streams comprise the headwaters of Ganga. The important among these are Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Pindar, Mandakini and Bhilangana. At Devprayag, where Alaknanda joins Bhagirathi, the river acquires the name Ganga. It traverses a course of 2525 km before flowing into the Bay of Bengal. It has a large number of tributaries joining it during this journey.  In Uttarakhand, Tehri dam has been built on Bhagirathi for hydropower generation resulting in regulated additional water discharge during the dry months. At Haridwar, Ganga opens to the Gangetic Plains, where a barrage diverts a large quantity of its waters into the Upper Ganga Canal, to provide water for irrigation. At Bijnore, another barrage diverts water into the Madhya Ganga Canal but only during monsoon months. At Narora, there is further diversion of water into the Lower Ganga Canal.  Further down, River Ramganga joins Ganga near Kannauj, adding additional water to the river. Yamuna confluences Ganga at the Sangam in Allahabad, making a major contribution to the river flow. Beyond Allahabad, Ganga is joined by several tributaries, most of which are from the north and a few from the south. In the stretch between Allahabad in U.P. and Malda in West Bengal, Ganga, therefore, has considerable flow. The Farakka barrage in West Bengal regulates the flow of the river, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linking Hooghly to keep it relatively silt-free.Downstream of this barrage, River Ganga splits,into two, Bhagirathi (Hooghly) on the right and Padma on the left. Bhagirathi (Hooghly) meets the Bay of Bengal about 150 km downstream of Kolkata. Padma enters Bangladesh and meets river Brahmputra and Meghna before finally joining the Bay of Bengal.

Sources:http://nmcg.nic.in/courseofganga.aspx

China's Two-Front Diplomacy: 'Go West' and 'Leap East'

China is expanding ties to its west as well as eastward across the Pacific Ocean.

Since President Xi Jinping took his office, there’s been a new atmosphere around several domestic issues, from the public’s livelihood to anti-corruption and institutional reforms of state organizations. Meanwhile, China’s foreign policy has also shifted, taking on a more proactive stance. In my view, China’s recent diplomatic outreaches can be grouped into two major categories: “Go West” and” Leap East.”

First, “Go West” emphasizes the plan for “a belt and a road” (referring to the “Silk Road Economic Belt” and the 21st century “Maritime Silk Road”). This strategy is significant; China will need to build this “belt and road” to realize a “community of common interests” or “community of common destiny” with China’s western neighbors, other Central Asian countries, and the Arab world. The Silk Road Economic Belt and Maritime Silk Road are essential to enhancing and securing reciprocal economic cooperation between China and the regions to China’s west. This strategy also highlights China’s interest in economic integration with these neighboring regions.

As President Xi Jinping put it, “a belt and a road” are “the path to mutual benefit and win-win [cooperation].” Two facts support this “Go West” strategy. First, there’s the long history of trade and communication between China and the western regions. Second, there is an ever-growing need for furthering economic cooperation and joint development in this area. In looking west, China is also driven by geopolitical concerns and regional security threats such as terrorism. Accordingly, China sees the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) as a major platform for furthering multilateral cooperation on important regional issues. In its “SCO Yellow Book 2014,” the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) argues that as the U.S. adjusts its strategy and returns to the Asia-Pacific region, China needs to find more developmental space in the western regions to mitigate the pressure from the east.

But China is not neglecting the eastern regions either; thus the corresponding “Leap East.” This strategy is not confined to the East Asian region either. Although China has been working hard on its charm offensive toward South Korea, given the fact that the ROK-U.S. alliance has existed for a much longer period of time compared to the history of Sino-ROK diplomatic relations, and the fact that the Japan-U.S. alliance is growing stronger, China won’t be able to easily gain the upper hand in the East Asian game, particularly in the short term. The U.S. has been substantially engaged in this region since the end of WWII and still maintains relative advantages in its confidence and strategic maneuverability. Therefore China cannot afford to be immersed in the enduring East Asian conundrum.

Instead, it could be a better choice for China to take a “leap” from East Asia, of course with the precondition that China fully uses it capability to maintain the relative stability of the East Asian region. China does not need to directly confront and seek to break through the first and second island chains; it can simply “leap” over them and find more diplomatic maneuvering space on the other side. This “Leap East” was reflected in President Xi Jinping’s two important visits to Latin America since he took office in late 2012, one in June 2013 and the other in July 2014.

As in China’s push west, economic cooperation has been a major driving force for the “Leap East.” China will probably outpace the EU and become Latin America’s second largest trading partner within two years, and could eventually pass the U.S to claim the top spot. From a geopolitical view, there’s significant strategic meaning to China stabilizing and extending its influence, either economically or politically, in the traditional backyard of the U.S. And there’s another interesting angle worth considering: many Latin American countries maintain diplomatic relations with Taiwan, yet Beijing does not seem to be holding this against potential partners as it seeks to further its economic and diplomatic existence in the region. This hints that Beijing has a long-term strategy for the region and has intentionally adopted a more practical and flexible diplomacy.

India's top 10 richest people

Rank 1: Mukesh Ambani ($22,600)

Despite losing $4.4 billion, Mukesh Ambani's Reliance Industries, that struck a $7.2-billion DEAL with BP, holds the top spot with a net worth of $22.6 billion.

Rank 2: Lakshmi Mittal ($19,200)
Lakshmi Niwas Mittal is the chairman and chief executive officer of ArcelorMittal, the world's largest steelmaking company.

Rank 3: Azim Premji ($13,000)
Tech tycoon Azim Premji of Wipro remains at No 3 even after donating shares worth $2 billion to his charitable trust, which made him one of Asia's top philanthropists. In January, 2011 he was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, the nation's second-highest civilian honor.

Rank 4: Shashi and Ravi Ruia ($10,200)
The brothers, Shashi and Ravi Ruia, sold their one-third stake in telecom unit Vodafone Essar for $5.4 billion in July, 2011 after their plan for listing the holding was opposed by Vodafone.

Rank 5: Savitri Jindal ($9,500)
Savitri Jindal is the head of Jindal Steel and Power Ltd.

Rank 6: Sunil Mittal ($8,800)
With over 230 million customers, Sunil Mittal's Bharti Airtel is world's fifth-largest telecom company, with operations in 19 countries.

Rank 7: Gautam Adani ($8,200)
Gautam Adani is the chairman of the Adani Group, a leading trading and export company of India.

Rank 8: Kumar Mangalam Birla ($7,700)
Aditya Birla Group is among the world's top 10 producers of cement and Asia's biggest aluminum producer.

Rank 9: Pallonji Mistry ($7,600)
Pallonji Mistry, the Chairman of the Shapoorji Pallonji Group, is the richest person of Iranian descent. His signature project is The Imperial, two 60-story towers in Mumbai.

Rank 10: Adi Godrej ($6,800)
His 114-year-old Godrej Group has a partnership with chocolate maker Hershey's.

TREATY ON THE NON-PROLIFERATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS (NPT)

The NPT is a landmark international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States. Opened for signature in 1968, the Treaty entered into force in 1970. On 11 May 1995, the Treaty was extended indefinitely.  A total of 190 parties have joined the Treaty, including the five nuclear-weapon States. More countries have ratified the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the Treaty's significance.  

The provisions of the Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisage a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference.

To further the goal of non-proliferation and as a confidence-building measure between States parties, the Treaty establishes a safeguards system under the responsibility of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Safeguards are used to verify compliance with the Treaty through inspections conducted by the IAEA. The Treaty promotes cooperation in the field of peaceful nuclear technology and equal access to this technology for all States parties, while safeguards prevent the diversion of fissile material for weapons use. 

The 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) met at United Nations Headquarters in New Yorkfrom 3 to 28 May 2010. A total of 172 States parties to the Treaty participated in the Conference. States parties agreed to a final document which included a review of the operation of the Treaty, reflecting the views of the President of the Conference, as well as agreed conclusions and recommendations for follow-on actions. The action plan contains measures to advance nuclear disarmament, nuclear non-proliferation, the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and regional issues, including the implementation of the 1995 Resolution on the Middle East. 

Origin of Ganga and stories behind its inception

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Origin of Ganga

The origin of river Ganges lies at the height of 13,800 feet in the mountain ranges of Himalayas, in Tehri Garhwal, near Gangotri. It begins high in the Himalayas as a pair of head streams. It begins in an ice cave in the mountains about 10,300 feet above sea level. Gangotri is known as the place of origin of the revered Ganges river, known as Ganga in India it is also consider one of the holy place in chota char dham . The holiest of the Indian rivers, is the longest river in India and the greatest waterway in India. The river has been declared as India's National River. Ganges is the source of sustainment of life in the great Indian plains and it is at Gangotri that the journey of Ganga begins. River Ganges gets water from the melting snow of Nanda devi, Gurla, Mandhata, Dhaulagiri, Gesaisthan, Kanchenjunga and Mount Everest. Many small and big rivers merge with the Ganges in the Himalayan region. The Ganges river flows through Bangladesh, but the greater part of it flows through India. The river flows across the northern corner of India. The Ganges flows across India and Bangladesh until it empties out into the Bay of Bengal. The great river provides water to many places, and many places rely on it.

Ganga Origin-Story of Bhagiratha

a) This is the most popular story regarding the origin of river Ganga. It is said that King Sagar magically acquired sixty thousand sons. Once, King Sagar organized Ashwamedh Yagna, a ritual of worship for the benefit of the kingdom. Jealous Indra planned a mischief and stole one horse from the place. King Sagar sent all his sons all over the earth to look for the horse. They found the horse in the nether-world standing next to Kapila Muni, a sage who was meditating. The youths, were disrespectful disturbed the sage during his meditation hours. The sage in anger for the misbehavior done reduced the youths to ashes with his withering look.

The souls of these young men wandered as ghosts as their final rites had not been done. The sixty thousand sons of Sagar came searching for the horse to the hermitage of Sage Kapila. They started to create nuisance, sage Kapila cursed them and they burnt to ashes. Anshuman another son of king Sagar came searching for his sixty thousand brothers, to Kapila's hermitage. When he came to know about the whole story he requested him to tell about the means by which his brothers could attain salvation. Kapila said that his brothers would attain salvation, if the water of Ganga were sprinkled on them.

Following the instructions of Kapila, Anshuman started doing penance on the Himalaya. But he was not successful in his attempt to bring Ganga to earth. His son Dilip too tried, but in vain. Atlast,  Bhagiratha, the son of Dileep was successful in getting a boon from Lord Brahma, as a result of which 'Ganga' descended down to earth. The force of the current was so great that there was a fear of her entering the nether world, unless she was stopped on the earth. Bhagiratha pleased Lord Shiva and requested him to hold her in his locks (hairs). Lord Shiva accepted it and did the same as requested and saved the earth from devastation. He released Ganga on the earth, as a result of which Ganga was subdivided into seven streams
1) Dwadini, 2) Pavani and 3) Nalini flew towards the east 4) Vakshu, 5) Sita, 6) Sindhu flew towards the west and the seventh stream followed the route, as instructed by Bhagiratha, and hence was called 7) Bhagirathi. Ultimately all the sixty thousand sons of Sagar were liberated by the sprinkle of the water of the Ganga. Since then Ganga is sanctifying the mankind with her divine waters.

b) There are many versions of stories regarding the origin of Ganges. In another story the sage Valmiki of Ramayana, Ganges was the daughter of 'Himalaya' and 'Maina'. The deities abducted her and took her to heaven and from then onwards, 'Ganga' started living inside the 'Karmandala' (a spout shaped vessel). According to Kritivas Ramayana the deities had taken 'Ganga' to Lord Shiva to get her married with him. When 'Maina' did not find her in the house, she cursed to attain the form of water. Here is Story of Mother Ganga with HD Video

c) Along the banks on Ganga there are many cities but among them two are famous and these are Haridwar and Allahabad. teh reason bhind this is they host worlds largest festival known as Kumbh Mela. Ganga has far more importance than just a sources of water for millions of people around the world who worship her as a mother who provides salvation from this world and cleans reaction of their past misdeeds. She is not a river she is our beloved mother who take care of our basic needs

Peacocks at Sunset

The world’s most spectacular border ceremony takes place every day before dusk at Wagah. Roughly halfway between Lahore in Pakistan and Amritsar in India, Wagah is where the Grand Trunk Road [1] intersects with the so-called Radcliffe Line, dividing the Punjabi town between the two countries. The only official road link [2] across the highly contentious and fairly recently fought-over Indo-Pakistan border passes through the town’s monumental border gate.

As large crowds gather on either side of the gate, claps and cheers of “Pakistan Zindabad!” and “Jai Hind!” [3] charge the air with anticipation, as if before a sports game. What follows the closing of the gate is indeed a contest between two teams. The khaki-clad ones are the Indian Border Security Forces; the Pakistan Rangers are resplendent in black. Each of the players is over six feet tall, sports fearful facial hair and carries impressive turban-cum-coxcomb headgear.

The apparent intent of the synchronized ceremony is to lower the flag of both nations before sunset. But as the sentries from either side dance their aggressive no-touch tango, the real object of the ceremony becomes clear: to act as a vent, right here on the geopolitical fault line, for the deep hostility and mutual resentment between India and Pakistan. In an unintentional side effect, the ceremony also exposes the mutual resemblance between both sides.

It’s been called “carefully choreographed contempt” [4]: the soldiers mirror each other’s goose-steps, thumb-thumps, martial cries and intimidating stares. This curious hybrid of battle and ballet may last up to an hour. When both flags have been hauled down, the only physical contact between both sides occurs: a curt handshake between officials, which signals that the ceremonial border gate is officially shut.

And all this for a trickle of traffic. Apart from a few border-crossing tourists, the number of locals going back and forth is no more than a few dozen each day. Such lack of interest in each other’s affairs reeks of the contempt bred by familiarity. Pakistan and India share truckloads of history, but in their relationship, that heritage counts as “baggage.” The half dozen wars and skirmishes fought between this South-Asian version of Cain and Abel can all be related to the moment of their conjoined birth in 1947, when they were severed by the Radcliffe Line — a hastily drawn up border that remains an open wound, even if dressed in the colorful bandage of Wagah’s daily flag-lowering ceremony.

Joe Burgess/The New York Times

At the end of World War II, a victorious but weakened Britain realized it could no longer hold on to India, the jewel in its imperial crown [5]. That was due in no small part to the non-violent resistance pioneered by Mahatma Gandhi, which revolutionized revolution itself. Sadly, Gandhi’s vision of a peaceful, non-communal India didn’t survive the British Raj [6][7]; other leaders of the Indian independence movement pushed for territorial separation based on religion, notably Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s Muslim League, which feared becoming a minority in a Hindu-majority nation.

One could argue that this split in the pro-independence camp was not only to London’s tactical advantage, but also at least partly of its making. When, in the first decade of the 20th century, the Indian electoral franchise was widened to include more locals, it was partitioned along confessional lines. Perhaps out of concern not to marginalize certain groups; but perhaps also with a mind toward that age-old adage, “divide et impera” [8]. If so, only the first part of the policy was a success. The post-war Labour government of Clement Attlee wanted to get rid of India in a hurry, the only sticking point being how not to get blamed for the intensifying communal conflict.

In early 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last British viceroy of India [9], set the deadline for independence for Aug. 15. On July 8, the British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe arrived in Indian with a brief for a line on the map that would divide Hindu-majority lands from Muslim-majority ones in as equitable a manner as possible. Radcliffe was a brilliant legal mind, but he had no border-making experience, nor had he ever been to India — though such “impartiality” was judged to be an advantage by all parties involved.

With barely five weeks between start and finish, Radcliffe had to chair not one but two boundary commissions: one for Bengal in the east, another for the Punjab in the west [10]. Each Radcliffe Border Commission was composed of four judges, two from the Muslim League, two from the (secular, but mainly Hindu) Congress Party. The resulting deadlock left all the major decisions to Radcliffe himself. The goal of both commissions was to establish contiguous zones containing comfortable majorities of either side’s co-religionists — but Radcliffe was allowed to take vague “other factors” into account, including (but possibly not limited to) infrastructural and economic considerations.

Mountbatten instructed Radcliffe not to mind the military angle — the artificial borders would be indefensible anyway. Radcliffe followed existing subdivisions, generally but not precisely following the course of a few rivers, creating a very convoluted border indeed.

Understandably, Radcliffe’s final proposals met with howls of disapproval from both sides. Even before he had completed his work, mutual suspicion and rumors about the eventual course of the border led to deadly violence on the ground. To create perceptual distance between the independence of India and Pakistan and the accompanying riots — and especially to deflect blame for the latter from Britain — Mountbatten postponed publication of the Radcliffe Border Commissions’ findings to two days after Aug. 15.

For those two days, India and Pakistan were like conjoined twins. With long stretches of the border undefined on Independence Day, some towns raised both the Indian and Pakistani flags. Following the release of the border scheme, called the Radcliffe Award, violence escalated to horrendous levels. When all was over, pogroms and ethnic cleansing had left up to 1 million dead and forced 12 million to move one way or the other across the new border.

Disgusted and horrified, Radcliffe burned all his papers and refused the fee of 40,000 rupees for his work. He left on Independence Day and never returned.

His border may have been hastily and arbitrarily drawn, but it is hard to see how any new, religion-based borderline across relatively integrated lands would not have led to chaos, violence and bloodshed. Yet the speed with which Britain wanted to leave India, and the internal dynamics of Indian politics, necessitated such a border. Radcliffe’s commissions achieved one goal: they gave all parties involved cover — everybody was able to blame the border, and its bloody consequences, on everyone but themselves.

Joe Burgess/The New York Times

The term “Radcliffe Line” is sometimes applied as a pars pro toto to the entire Indo-Pakistani border. But to be precise, we need to distinguish between the two Radcliffe Lines [11] drawn up by either of the Radcliffe Border Commissions: the current Indo-Bangladeshi border, and the Indo-Pakistani border as it runs through the Punjab. This second Radcliffe Line forms part of the so-called International Border, which courses down to the Arabian Sea, dividing the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh from the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. This is the least-contested part of the line dividing both countries [12], running through the thinly populated Thaar Desert and the Great Rann of Kutch, an enormous seasonal salt marsh.

The tricky part of the 1,800-mile line dividing Pakistan and India lies north of Punjab. This used to be the princely state of Kashmir, the ruler of which had to decide after independence whether to accede to India or Pakistan. Because of the state’s Muslim majority and its contiguity with Pakistan, this should have been a no-brainer. The state’s Hindu ruler had other plans. But while the maharajah was maneuvering to keep Kashmir neutral and independent from both — a sort of Himalayan Switzerland — a pro-Pakistan rebellion forced him to ask for Indian assistance, which was granted only after Kashmir agreed to join India. War broke out between Pakistan and India, and the two newborn countries fought to a standstill over Kashmir in 1948, and again in 1965 — and again in 1999.

Most of Kashmir is Indian-held, while the Pakistani hold a crescent-shaped eastern bit. The line dividing both is not an international border, determined by a commission, a reassuringly full line on the map, but a “line of control,” the result of an armistice, represented cartographically by the much more ephemeral dotted line.

To further complicate matters, there’s also a “line of actual control” in the subcontinent’s High North, dividing territory held by India but claimed by Pakistan from territory held by China but claimed by India (got that?). This area, called Aksai Chin, was occupied by China during the brief Sino-Indian War of 1962 [13]. And while India and Pakistan agreed to respect the line of control by the Simla Agreement in 1972, that document left out the Siachen Glacier, subsequently occupied by India in 1984 and occasionally skirmished over (although sub-zero temperatures and avalanches claim more lives than the actual fighting).

Sixty-five years after the acrimonious divorce between India and Pakistan, the border remains a throbbing wound of separation — yet a wound elemental to both nations’ psyche. So is there no hope for lasting peace? There is, if you believe that small steps matter: in 2010, the commander in charge of the Pakistani Rangers announced that the aggressive nature of the Wagah ceremony would be toned down to reflect the desire for improved relationship between both countries. No details are available on the specifics. Did the sentries have their moustaches clipped? Or does that curt handshake last just a bit longer nowadays?Radcliffe’s arbitration, and the subsequent subdivision of the subcontinent, has had many unintended consequences, the most important being the elevation of the British Raj’s inter communal conflict to that of an international fault line. A chilling addition to the ever-looming risk of war occurred in May 1998, when first India, then Pakistan conducted successful test explosions of atomic bombs, raising the specter of fratricide by nuclear war.

Pepsi and Coca Cola Contains PORK (PIG) extracts

• Pepsi and Coca Cola Contains PORK (PIG) extracts - PROVEN!!> Shocking News :>> Pepsi and Coca Cola contains extract from Pork (Pig). Most of> the people avoid Pepsi and Coca-Cola for various reasons:->>> Because of harmful chemical contents such as excessive> carbonates, etc. Now there is yet another> reason which is more dangerous>>> The scientific and medical research says that drinking Pepsi &> Cola leads to cancer because the key element is taken from Pigs> sausage. The pig is the only animal that eats dirt, dung and> urine, which makes lethal and deadly fabric polluted germs and> microbes.>> According to a report published in Jordanian> magazine, the head of Delhi University Science and Technology,> Dr. Mangoshada scientifically proved that the key element in> Pepsi and Cola contains extract from the intestines of Pig which> causes cancer and other deadly> diseases.>>> The Indian university conducted tests on the impact of> drinking Pepsi and Coca Cola which proved that drinking them> lead to more rapid heart rate and low pressure. Also drinking 6> bottles of Pepsi or Cola at a time causes instant death. It also> contains chemicals such as carbonic and phosphoric acids, citric> acid which harms teeth and causes bone fragility.>> Bones kept in> the Cup of Pepsi melts during the week knowing that the bones of> the dead remain in the grave for thirty years. Research itself> confirmed that the calcium dissolved in Pepsi and it weakens the> bladder, kidneys, kills the pancreatic, leads> to> diabetes and infectious diseases. Pepsi or Coca-Cola lovers> nothing to worry as it is not the only drinks available on this> earth, as we have other healthy alternatives such as natural> fruit juices, canned coconut water, flavoured milks, buttermilk> etc., all of them are conveniently available even in the small.

List of President of india

 President of India

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Shri Pranab Mukherjee

    13th President of India - 25 July 2012 To Present

	Smt Pratibha Devisingh Patil (b - 1934) Term of Office: 25 July 2007 TO 25 July 2012
	DR. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (b - 1931) Term of Office: 25 July 2002 TO 25 July 2007
	Shri K. R. NARAYANAN (1920 - 2005) Term of Office: 25 July 1997 TO 25 July 2002
	Dr Shankar Dayal Sharma (1918-1999) Term of Office: 25 July 1992 TO 25 July 1997
	Shri R Venkataraman (1910-2009) Term of Office: 25 July 1987 TO 25 July 1992
	Giani Zail Singh (1916-1994) Term of Office: 25 July 1982 TO 25 July 1987
	SHRI NEELAM SANJIVA REDDY (1913-1996) Term of Office: 25 July 1977 TO 25 July 1982
	Dr. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed (1905-1977) Term of Office: 24 August 1974 TO 11 February 1977
	Shri Varahagiri Venkata Giri (1894-1980) Term of Office: 3 May 1969 TO 20 July 1969 and 24 August 1969 TO 24 August 1974
	Dr. Zakir Husain (1897-1969) Term of Office: 13 May 1967 TO 3 May 1969
	Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) Term of Office: 13 May 1962 TO 13 May 1967
	Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963) Term of Office: 26 January 1950 TO 13 May 1962

What Minerals Are in a Light Bulb?

By Rakesh Gupta, New Delhi

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There are a number of minerals used in the making of the light bulb.

Light bulbs are comprised of a number of nonmetallic minerals and metallic minerals, as well as various other periodic gases and nonmineral materials. Many of these minerals are found in abundance in nature and in the human body. Most minerals must be mined from rock or from the earth's soil. Minerals are used in light bulbs to make the glass, the mechanism that allows it to light and the fuel to generate the electricity. 

1. Copper

   • Copper is a metallic mineral substance, and is used in the production of electric light bulbs because it conducts electricity very well. Copper,along with nickel, is used to make the wires that lead into the main body of the bulb. These wires carry electricity from an electric source to the area that emits light, called the filament. Copper must be mined, and is found in nature in several different forms, such as azurite, malachite and cuprite.

   Aluminum

   • Aluminum is a metallic mineral found in abundance in the earth's crust, and according Georgia State University's Department of Physics and Astronomy, aluminum is the third most abundant element found on earth. Aluminum is refined from bauxite ore, and is a good conductor of electricity. Aluminum is used to create the heat deflector in the light bulb so that hot gases do not build up and break the bulb.
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   Nickel

   • Nickel is a metallic white mineral used in light bulbs, because it does not corrode. Also, when mixed with iron, nickel creates an alloy that is used to make the inner stem wiring of the bulb. Nickel is used, along with manganese and copper, to make the fuse of the light bulb. A nickel-copper alloy is also used to make some of the light bulb's electrical wiring.

   Molybdenum

   • Molybdenum is used to make the support wires for the filament in light bulbs. Molybdenum is a metallic mineral that occurs naturally in the earth's crust and in the oceans. It is very hard and because of this, it is used in tool-steel alloys. Molybdenum is also used in light bulbs because it does not melt easily. Molybdenum is usually found with other minerals in powellite and wulfenite.

   Trona

   • Trona, also known as soda ash, is an evaporite mineral. This means the mineral forms as the result of evaporated water or liquid or through the process of erosion from rock. Along with salt, lime and coal, trona is used to make the glass bulb of the light bulb. Trona is sodium carbonate, and is found in bodies of water that contain soda brine. Trona byproducts include baking soda, some preservatives and some detergents and soaps.

40 Common Minerals and Their Uses

 Aluminum

The most abundant metal element in Earth's crust. Aluminum originates as an oxide called alumina. Bauxite ore is the main source of aluminum and must be imported from Jamaica, Guinea, Brazil, Guyana, etc. Used in transportation (automobiles), packaging, building/construction, electrical, machinery and other uses. The U.S. was 100 percent import reliant for its aluminum in 2012.

Antimony

A native element; antimony metal is extracted from stibnite ore and other minerals. Used as a hardening alloy for lead, especially storage batteries and cable sheaths; also used in bearing metal, type metal, solder, collapsible tubes and foil, sheet and pipes and semiconductor technology. Antimony is used as a flame retardant, in fireworks, and in antimony salts are used in the rubber, chemical and textile industries, as well as medicine and glassmaking. The U.S. was 87 percent import reliant in 2012.

Barium

A heavy metal contained in barite. Used as a heavy additive in oil well drilling; in the paper and rubber industries; as a filler or extender in cloth, ink and plastics products; in radiography ("barium milkshake"); as a deoxidizer for copper; a sparkplug in alloys; and in making expensive white pigments.

Bauxite

Rock composed of hydrated aluminum oxides. In the U.S., it is primarily converted to alumina. See "aluminum." The U.S. was 100 percent import reliant in 2012.

Beryllium

Used in the nuclear industry and to make light, very strong alloys used in the aircraft industry. Beryllium salts are used in fluorescent lamps, in X-ray tubes and as a deoxidizer in bronze metallurgy. Beryl is the gem stones emerald and aquamarine. It is used in computers, telecommunication products, aerospace and defense applications, appliances and automotive and consumer electronics. Also used in medical equipment. The U.S. was 10 percent import reliant in 2012.

Chromite

The U.S. consumes about 6 percent of world chromite ore production in various forms of imported materials, such as chromite ore, chromite chemicals, chromium ferroalloys, chromium metal and stainless steel. Used as an alloy and in stainless and heat resisting steel products. Used in chemical and metallurgical industries (chrome fixtures, etc.) Superalloys require chromium. It is produced in South Africa, Kazakhstan and India. The U.S. was 70 percent import reliant for chromium in 2012.

Clays

Used in floor and wall tile as an absorbent, in sanitation, mud drilling, foundry sand bond, iron pelletizing, brick, light weight aggregate and cement. It is produced in 40 states. Ball clay is used in floor and wall tile. Bentonite is used for drilling mud, pet waste absorbent, iron ore pelletizing and foundry sand bond. Kaolin is used for paper coating and filling, refractory products, fiberglass, paint, rubber and catalyst manufacture. Common clay is used in brick, light aggregate and cement. The U.S. was not import reliant in 2012.

Cobalt

Used primarily in superalloys for aircraft gas turbine engines, in cemented carbides for cutting tools and wear-resistant applications, chemicals (paint dryers, catalysts, magnetic coatings) and permanent magnets. The United States has cobalt resources in Minnesota, Alaska, California, Idaho, Missouri, Montana and Oregon. Cobalt production comes principally from Congo, China, Canada, Russia, Australia and Zambia. The U.S. was 78 percent import reliant in 2012.

Copper

Used in building construction, electric and electronic products (cables and wires, switches, plumbing, heating); transportation equipment; roofing; chemical and pharmaceutical machinery; and alloys (brass, bronze and beryllium alloyed with copper are particularly vibration resistant); alloy castings; electroplated protective coatings and undercoats for nickel, chromium, zinc, etc. More recently copper is being used in medical equipment due to its anti-microbial properties. The United States has mines in Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Nevada and Montana. Leading producers are Chile, Peru, China, United States and Australia. The U.S. was 35 percent import reliant in 2012.

Feldspar

A rock-forming mineral; industrially important in glass and ceramic industries; patter and enamelware; soaps; bond for abrasive wheels; cements; insulating compositions; fertilizer; tarred roofing materials; and as a sizing, or filler, in textiles and paper. In pottery and glass, feldspar functions as a flux. End-uses for feldspar in the U.S. include glass (70 percent) and pottery and other uses (30 percent). The U.S. was 78 percent import reliant in 2012. The U.S. was not import reliant in 2012.

Fluorite (fluorspar)

Used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics, optical, electroplating and plastics industries; in the metallurgical treatment of bauxite; as a flux in open hearth steel furnaces and in metal smelting; in carbon electrodes; emery wheels; electric arc welders; toothpaste; and paint pigment. It is a key ingredient in the processing of aluminum and uranium. The U.S. was 100 percent import reliant in 2012.

Gallium

Gallium is used in integrated circuits, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodetectors and solar cells. It has a new use in chemotherapy for some types of cancer. Integrated circuits are used in defense applications, high performance computers and telecommunications. Optoelectronic devices were used in areas such as aerospace, consumer goods, industrial equipment, medical equipment and telecommunications. Leading sources are Germany, UK, China and Canada. The U.S. was 99 percent import reliant in 2012.

Gold

Used in jewelry and arts; dentistry and medicine; in medallions and coins; in ingots as a store of value; for scientific and electronic instruments; as an electrolyte in the electroplating industry. Mined in Alaska and several western states. Leading producers are China, Australia, United States, Russia and Canada. The U.S. was not import reliant in 2012.

Gypsum

Processed and used as prefabricated wallboard or an industrial or building plaster; used in cement manufacturing; agriculture and other uses. The U.S. was 12 percent import reliant in 2012.

Halite (sodium chloride--salt)

Used in human and animal diet, food seasoning and food preservation; used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, metallic sodium; used in ceramic glazes; metallurgy, curing of hides; mineral waters; soap manufacturing; home water softeners; highway de-icing; photography; in scientific equipment for optical parts. Single crystals used for spectroscopy, ultraviolet and infrared transmission. The U.S. was 19 percent import reliant for salt in 2012.

Indium

Indium tin oxide is used for electrical conductivity purposes in flat panel devices - most commonly in liquid crystal displays (LCDs). It is also used in solders, alloys, compounds, electrical components, semiconductors and research. Indium ore is not recovered from ores in the U.S. China is the leading producer. It is also produced in Canada, Japan and Belgium. The U.S. was 100 percent import reliant in 2012.

Iron Ore

Used to manufacture steels of various types. Powdered iron: used in metallurgy products; magnets; high-frequency cores; auto parts; catalyst. Radioactive iron (iron 59): in medicine; tracer element in biochemical and metallurgical research. Iron blue: in paints, printing inks, plastics, cosmetics, paper dyeing. Black iron oxide: as pigment; in polishing compounds; metallurgy; medicine; magnetic inks. Most U.S. production is from Michigan and Minnesota. China, Australia, Brazil and Russia are the major producers. The U.S. was not import reliant in 2012.

Lead

Used in lead-acid batteries, gasoline additives (now being eliminated) and tanks, and solders, seals or bearing; used in electrical and electronic applications; TV tubes and glass, construction, communications and protective coatings; in ballast or weights; ceramics or crystal glass; X-ray and gamma radiation shielding; soundproofing material in construction industry; and ammunition. Industrial type batteries are used as a source of uninteruptible power equipment for computer and telecommunications networks and mobile power. United States mines lead mainly in Missouri, but also in Alaska and Idaho. The U.S. was not import reliant in 2012.

Lithium

Compounds are used in ceramics and glass; batteries; lubricating greases; air treatment; in primary aluminum production; in the manufacture of lubricants and greases; rocket propellants; vitamin A synthesis; silver solder; batteries; medicine. Lithium ion batteries have become a substitute for nickel-cadmium batteries in hand held/portable electronic devices. There is one brine operation in Nevada. Australia, Chile and China are major producers. The U.S. was more than 70 percent reliant for lithium in 2012.

Manganese

Ore is essential to iron and steel production. Also used in the making of manganese ferroalloys. Construction, machinery and transportation end uses account for most U.S. consumption of manganese. Manganese ore has not been produced in the U.S. since 1970. Major producers are South Africa, Australia, China, Gabon and Brazil. The U.S. was 100 percent import reliant in 2012.

Mica

Micas commonly occur as flakes, scales or shreds. Ground mica is used in paints, as joint cement, as a dusting agent, in oil well-drilling muds; and in plastics, roofing, rubber and welding rods. Sheet mica is fabricated into parts for electronic and electronic equipment. China and Russia are leading producers. The U.S. was 100 percent import reliant in 2012.

Molybdenum

Used in alloy steels to make automotive parts, construction equipment, gas transmission pipes; stainless steels; tool steels; cast irons; super alloys; and chemicals and lubricants. As a pure metal, molybdenum is used because of its high melting temperatures (4,730 F) as filament supports in light bulbs, metalworking dies and furnace parts. Major producers are China, the United States, Chile and Peru. The U.S. was not import reliant in 2012.

Nickel

Vital as an alloy to stainless steel; plays key role in the chemical and aerospace industries. End uses were transportation, fabricated metal products, electrical equipment, petroleum and chemical industries, household appliances and industrial machinery. Major producers are the Philippines, Indonesia, Russia, Australia and Canada. The U.S. was 49 percent import reliant in 2012.

Perlite

Expanded perlite is used in building construction products like roof insulation boards; as fillers, for horticulture aggregate and filter aids. It is produced in New Mexico and other western states and is processed in over 20 states. Leading producers are the U.S., Greece and Turkey. The U.S. was 24 percent import reliant in 2012.

Platinum Group Metals (PGM)

Includes platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium and ruthenium. Commonly occur together in nature and are among the scarcest of the metallic elements. Platinum is used principally in catalysts for the control of automobile and industrial plant emissions; in jewelry; in catalysts to produce acids, organic chemicals and pharmaceuticals. PGMs used in bushings for making glass fibers used in fiber-reinforced plastic and other advanced materials, in electrical contacts, in capacitors, in conductive and resistive films used in electronic circuits; in dental alloys used for making crowns and bridge. South Africa, Russia, the U.S. and Canada are major producers. The U.S. was over 50 percent import reliant for most PGMs in 2012.

Phosphate rock

Used to produce phosphoric acid for ammoniated phosphate fertilizers, feed additives for livestock, elemental phosphorus, and a variety of phosphate chemicals for industrial and home consumers. U.S. production occurs in Florida, North Carolina, Idaho and Utah. The U.S. is a major producer. It was not import reliant in 2012.

Potash

A carbonate of potassium; used as a fertilizer, in medicine, in the chemical industry and to produce decorative color effects on brass, bronze and nickel. The leading producers are Canada, Russia and Belarus. The U.S. was 81 percent import reliant in 2012.

Pyrite

Used in the manufacture of sulfur, sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide; pellets of pressed pyrite dust are used to recover iron, gold, copper, cobalt, nickel; used to make inexpensive jewelry.

Quartz (silica)

As a crystal, quartz is used as a semiprecious gem stone. Crystalline varieties include amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, smoky quartz, etc. Cryptocrystalline forms include agate, jasper, onyx, etc. Because of its piezoelectric properties quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators and wave stabilizes; because of its ability to rotate the plane of polarization of light and its transparency in ultraviolet rays, it is used in heat-ray lamps, prism and spectrographic lenses. Also used in manufacturing glass, paints, abrasives, refractory materials and precision instruments.

Rare Earth Elements (lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium ytterbium and lutetium)

Used mainly in petroleum fluid cracking catalysts, metallurgical additives and alloys, glass polishing and ceramics, permanent magnets and phosphors. It is estimated that 40 pounds of rare earths are used in a hybrid car for rechargeable battery, permanent magnet motor and the regenerative braking system. The U.S. now has one rare earth (bastnasite) mine in California. More than 85 percent of global production is in China. The U.S. was import reliant for most of its rare earth metals in 2012.

Silica

Aluminum and aluminum alloy producers and the chemical industry are major users of silicon metal. Silica is also used in manufacture of computer chips, glass and refractory materials; ceramics; abrasives; water filtration; component of hydraulic cements; filler in cosmetics, pharmaceutical, paper, insecticides; anti-caking agent in foods; flatting agent in paints; thermal insulator; and photovoltaic cells. China is the leading producer. The U.S. was 36 percent reliant on metallurgical grade silicon metal in 2012.

Silver

Used in coins and medals, electrical and electronic devices, industrial applications, jewelry, silverware and photography. The physical properties of silver include ductility, electronics conductivity, malleability and reflectivity. Used in lining vats and other equipment for chemical reaction vessels, water distillation, etc.; a catalyst in manufacture of ethylene; mirrors; silver plating; table cutlery; dental, medical and scientific equipment; bearing metal; magnet windings; brazing alloys, solder. Also used in catalytic converters, cell phone covers, electronics, circuit boards, bandages for wound care and batteries. Silver is produced in the U.S. at over 30 base and precious metal mines primarily in Alaska and Nevada. The leading global producers include Mexico, China, Peru, Chile, Australia, Bolivia and the U.S. The U.S. was 57 percent reliant in 2012.

Sodium Carbonate (soda ash or trona)

Used in glass container manufacture; in fiberglass and specialty glass; also used in production of flat glass; in liquid detergents; in medicine; as a food additive; photography; cleaning and boiler compounds; pH control of water. Most U.S. production comes from Wyoming. The U.S. is a major producer.

Sulfur

Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, fertilizers, petroleum refining; and metal mining. Elemental sulphur and byproduct sulfuric acid were produced in over 100 operations in 26 state and the Virgin Islands. The U.S., Canada, China and Germany are major producers.

Tantalum

A refractory metal with unique electrical, chemical and physical properties used to produce electronic components, tantalum capacitors (in auto electronics, pagers, personal computers and portable telephones) ; for high-purity tantalum metals in products ranging from weapon systems to superconductors; high-speed tools; catalyst; sutures and body implants; electronic circuitry; thin-film components. Used in optical glass and electroplating devices. Leading producers are Mozambique, Brazil and Congo. The U.S. was 100 percent reliant in 2012.

Titanium

Titanium mineral concentrates are used primarily by titanium dioxide pigment producers. A small amount is used in welding rod coatings and for manufacturing carbides, chemicals and metals. It is produced in Florida and Virginia. Leading producing countries are South Africa, Australia, Canada and China. The U.S. was 77 percent reliant in 2012.
Titanium and titanium dioxide are used in aerospace applications (in jet engines, airframes and space and missile applications). It is also used in armor, chemical processing, marine, medical, power generation, sporting goods and other non-aerospace applications. Titanium sponge metal was produced in three operations in Nevada and Utah. The leading global producers are China, Japan, Russia and Kazakhstan.

Tungsten

More than half of the tungsten consumed in the United States was used in cemented carbide parts for cutting and wear-resistant materials, primarily in the construction, metalworking, mining, and oil- and gas-drilling industries. The remaining tungsten was consumed to make tungsten heavy alloys for applications requiring high density; electrodes, filaments, wires, and other components for electrical, electronic, heating, lighting, and welding applications; steels, superalloys, and wear-resistant alloys; and chemicals for various applications. China is by far the leading producer. Russia, Canada, Austria and Bolivia also produce tungsten. The U.S. produces very little. It was 42 percent import reliant in 2012.

Uranium

Nearly 20 percent of America's electricity is produced using uranium in nuclear generation. It is also used for nuclear medicine, atomic dating, powering nuclear submarines and other uses in the U.S. defense system. The U.S. received 83 percent of its uranium from other countries in 2012.

Vanadium

Metallurgical use, primarily as an alloying agent for iron and steel, accounted for about 93 percent of the domestic vanadium consumption. Of the other uses for vanadium, the major non-metallurgical use was in catalysts for the production of maleic anhydride and sulfuric acid. China, South Africa and Russia are largest producers. The U.S. was 96 percent reliant in 2012.

Zeolites

Used in animal feed, cat litter, cement, aquaculture (fish hatcheries for removing ammonia from the water); water softener and purification; in catalysts; odor control; and for removing radioactive ions from nuclear plant effluent. The U.S. was not import reliant in 2012.

Zinc

Of the total zinc consumed in the U.S., about 55 percent was used in galvanizing, 21 percent in zinc-based alloys, 16 percent in brass and bronze, and 8 percent in other uses. Zinc compounds and dust were used principally by the agriculture, chemical, paint, and rubber industries.

Major co-products of zinc mining and smelting, in order of decreasing tonnage, were lead, sulfuric acid, cadmium, silver, gold and germanium. Zinc is used as protective coating on steel, as die casting, as an alloying metal with copper to make brass and as chemical compounds in rubber and paints; used as sheet zinc and for galvanizing iron; electroplating; metal spraying; automotive parts; electrical fuses; anodes; dry cell batteries; nutrition; chemicals; roof gutter; engravers' plates; cable wrappings; organ pipes and pennies. Zinc oxide used in medicine, paints, in vulcanizing rubber, sun block. Zinc dust used for primers, paints, precipitation of noble metals; removal of impurities from solution in zinc electrowinning. U.S. production is in three states and 13 mines. Leading producers are China, Australia, Peru and the U.S. The U.S. was 72 percent import reliant in 2012.